Walter Benjamin: “Thesis of the Philosophy of History”.

A Klee painting named “Angelus Novus” shows an angel looking at though he is about to move away from something he is fixedly contemplating. His eyes are staring, his mouth is open, his wings are spread. This is how one pictures the angel of history. His face is turned toward the past. Where we perveive a chain of events, he sees one single catastrophe which keeps piling wreckage upon wreckage and hurls it in front of his feet. The angel would like to stay, awaken and dead, and make whole what has been smashed. But a storm is blowing from Paradise, it has got caught in its wings with such violence that the angel can no longer close them. This storm irrestibly propels him to the future to which his back is turned, while the pile of debris before him grows skywards. This storm is what we call progress.

In the ninth thesis, Walter Benjamin rejects the past as the continuum of progress in the future. The painting of the angel which metophorically represents history is looking to the past and hopes of lingering there. However, the chain of past catastrophic events which he hopes to fix is now propelling him to move into the future. The angel is hopeless and cannot make whole the fragments of history. The task of the Angel is to establish a redemptive relation to the fragments. Progress beckons the angel, who must move ahead into the future to keep abreast of the changing times.

This passage is relevant in our lives as well. Instead of living in the past, we must pick the pieces of our lives and move on. Perfection is not a state but a dream, and our human frailties have made us captives of the past and detest change. In this passage Benjamin is speaking about moving ahead in life, despite all the mistakes committed and problems that we face. To quote Buddha, “Change is the only constant thing in life”.

Walter Benjamin: 

 

1. What is the difference between cult value and exhibition value in art? How does Benjamin see these values in relation to politics?

Cult value in the work of art is when a commodity is rare such as a fleeting moment in photography to grab the human experience. However, the cult value now is being replaced by exhibition value with films and photography being prime examples. The stress on the cult value of works of art has shifted to their exhibition value. Photography and film are ideally suited for realizing that shift.

2. What is the difference between Erfahrung and Erlebnisse? How does it relate to art?
Erfahrung is use to indicate the experience as on going and cumulative. It also means to say something you undergo. Erlernisse is used to discuss the idea of experience as isolated and categorical. It also means to say something you have.

3. Explain some of the positive and negative effects of the destruction of the "aura" in art.
The withering of the aura of art is a good thing. Instead of being based on ritual, it begins to take on new forms, and that leads to the meager of art and media.
The negative aspect of the destruction of aura is that it takes away the uniqueness of the moment and time of the art.

4. How would you judge or evaluate the impact of forms of mass culture like film in contemporary life? Have they changed human perception? Are they important part of creating political consciousness in the public?
Mass culture like films has become an integral part of the art and communication medium for modern times. Mass culture refers to how culture gets produced. Mass culture is mass produced, distributed, and marketed. This culture tends to reproduce the liberal value of individualism and to foster a view of the citizen as a consumer.

On Pain:

Junger’s critique of liberalism is that it basically denies or conceals the relationship to pain. The existence of pain contradicts the dominant values of liberal society which holds out the myth that good will always triumph over evil:

Pain’s disregard for our system of great values greatly increases its hold on life… Our children’s tales close with passages about heroes who, after having overcome many dangers, live out their lives in peace and happiness. We hear such assurances with pleasure, for it is comforting for us to learn about a place removed from pain. Yet, in truth, life is without any such satisfying end.

Junger was against liberalism and he looked forward to the dissolution of the Weimer Republic and its liberal capitalism. He believed that revolution would bring a progress in Germany and liberalism stood in its way. Junger, a World War I veteran, was a vocal critic of the Weimer Republic. In the passage from “On Pain”, there is a total rejection of liberalism and its values of liberty, security, comfort and ease. His explanation was that at the root of everything, pain was the motivating force that propelled mankind to make progress and move ahead. The passage explains to people to come out of the fantasy world of the bourgeoisie and see that world shatter before them.

1. How would you judge Junger’s thesis that pain is the central experience of life.

For Junger, who was far removed from the basic tenets of liberalism, his idea that pain was the central experience of life was a bold statement to make at his time. Yet I agree with Junger’s thesis, because his argument still holds true in today’s world. The world has seen wars, earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and other disasters both man made and natural. If we look at the basic component of all that has happened, pain is the central experience and also the driving force that drives people to move ahead and over come the hindrances thrown at them.

2. What does “post-liberal” refer to and how does it relate to the idea of progress?

This refers to how the liberals have evolved their notion of progress. In the early days, liberals viewed progress as having peace and universal brotherhood, but now that has changed to measuring progress in terms of education level, income level etc.

3. Why is the photography the “evil eye” according to Junger?

Photography according to Junger is evil, because it captures what ever it sees, without a hint of emotion or humanity.

4. What is the relationship between specialized education and the “worker type.”

Specialized education and higher learning was reserved for the elite in society and not available to the working class. The inclusion of many clauses and baseless rules made it difficult for the people from the working class to have access to higher education and thereby stopping them from moving up the social ladder.

5. How does submission to totalitarian authorities protect an individual from pain.

Pain is a very subjective feeling and varies between people.  Submission to a totalitarian authority would protect the individual from harm and thereby protect him from pain.

NAZISM:

Despite the obvious militaristic nature of the fascist governments many celebrate Hitler’s success. The economy grows by about 9 percent between 1933-1939 that is similar to the level that the Chinese economy is growing today. Unemployment was lower in Germany than in the United States during the 1930s, although workers were paid less on average than U.S. workers. Many U.S. business executives at Ford and General Motors praise the Germans success like William S. Knudsen, who called Nazi Germany "the miracle of the twentieth century" and later as head of GM was the first civilian to be made into a general and played a key role in directing the economic side of the U.S. war effort in the 1940s. Hitler in turn praises industrialists like Henry Ford both for their success in business and anti-semitism. The Nazi Volkswagen project was meant to imitate the success of the Ford Model T, while Ford published articles like The International Jew. In 1936 Germany hosts the Olympics and in 1938 Hitler is named Time man of the year. Groups like the America First Committee (largely funded by business executives) were committed to non-intervention in the war and peace with Germany right up until the attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941.

This was a period of a huge economic growth for Germany. Just like how the Nazi party rose to power riding on a wave of propaganda, so did the policies implemented by it. The money that came from creating jobs was used to finance the production of war fare machinery. Hitler was a power hungry person who wanted to rule more than just Germany, and he knew that could be achieved only by the use of force.

I choose this passage because it underlies the progress Germany made under the Nazi regime. What must be noted here is that the motive of such was to ultimately conquer major parts of the world.

Another thing is that America took it’s time to enter the Second World War. It waited for Russia to drain all it’s resources and until Pearl Harbor happened it did not enter the war. Another argument could be put forth that America saw the fall of Germany and its allies were coming. And it waited for Russia to finish the work. Had Pearl Harbor not happened, who knows what the outcome of the war would have been, or its aftermath.

1. What were some of the major reasons that led to the rise of Nazi Germany?

The rise of the Nazi party in Germany was a gradual process and many factors led to this development. Following the loss of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles (which put the blame of the First World War squarely on Germany) many people were anger and this created a bitterness to which Hitler’s expansionism appealed. The Nazi party gave the German people hope and a chance to regain their lost pride. Secondly, the government was crippled by the weak constitution and there were loopholes in it, to which Hitler capitalized on. The Great Depression of 1929 sent shockwaves across the World and Germany was adversely affected due to its strong ties with the American economy. Widespread unemployment resulted from the crash in the stock market and the unemployed number of people rose to four million by 1930. The Nazi party capitalized on the severe economic disaster and by 1930 had become the second largest party in the Reichstag and it now became impossible to form a government without their support.

2. How did Nazis resolve conflicts between workers and owners and why was this an attractive model for business executives?

The Nazi party portrayed itself as the alternative to non-communist to the working class. They strategy was to substitute racial struggle for class struggle. They controlled class struggle by controlling the prices and wages of products and workers. Independent unions were destroyed in favor of a Nazi controlled union. It was attractive for the executives, as they were left in control of their business organizations, unlike the communist model. Moreover, the government became their biggest customer, as demands grew to supply the production of materials to support war.

3. What is the significance of the phrase “Arbeit macht Frei”?

This sign was infamously put up on many Nazi concentration camps during their regime. This phrase literally means “work makes one free”. However, on the contrary it had the opposite meaning. This was a place used to murder the Jews that were brought there to work. This sign became a defining symbol of the holocaust as it served as a reminder of the atrocities that the Jews underwent during the rule of the Nazi party in Germany.

4. What is State Capitalism and how does it relate to Nazi Germany?

State capitalism is a form of capitalism where the state performs the role of capitalist employer, exploiting the workers in the interest of the State. This can also be stated as the form of governance where there is the presence of a significant number of state owned business enterprises. During the regime of the Nazi party, most companies were directly or indirectly linked with the government. For example, Hitler believed the auto industry was vital in reviving the economy, and so his regime set up many companies that were run by his subordinates.

5. How would you evaluate the psychological causes of anti-semitism in the context of German society?

Anti-semitism was rampant during the reign of the Nazi party in Germany. People of the Jewish faith were denied basic civil rights, their property destroyed or confiscated. Jewish people holding positions in business and academics were removed from their jobs. The holocaust was set to mass murder Jews and by historical accounts about six million Jews perished during the holocaust. The German society was affected and more particularly the Jewish people were adversely affected by the actions of the Nazi party. Anti-semitism created a resentment among the German people against the Jewish people and that burden had to be carried on to the next generation.

Max Weber: Politics as a Vocation

The connections between Weber and nihilism deal with the central conflict of trying to find meaning and purpose in a nihilistic world. For Weber the solution is politics, which he regards as a vocation. Vocation itself refers to a “calling” in the German Lutheran tradition, a specific calling to serve God. Weber draws upon this meaning while redefining it in a secular way, to refer to devotion to one’s work and through that finding a sense of fulfillment and purpose in life. “Vocational training” also refers to the teaching of “procedural knowledge” and is used to refer to the teaching of trades like carpentry or plumbing that require specific technical knowledge. He develops this concept for professional politicians to what he refers to as status honor a sense of achievement deriving from the ability to perform the work processes that are necessary to carry out political decisions. At the same time he says everyone who lives ‘for’ politics (vocation), also lives ‘off’ politics (avocation) in that they are financially dependent upon politics for a livelihood. However, the typical way in which politics, status honor, and vocational meaning intersect and mediate each other is through nationalism. The nation then becomes the substitute for the loss of meaning in traditional authorities caused by the rise of nihilistic thought in the late 19th century. The nation becomes a substitute for God. The concept of civic religion is related to this idea and is closely related to the development of republican states in the ancient world.


Max Weber was a German sociologist whose influence on the discipline of sociology had far reaching effects. In the above passage Weber tries to find reason in a person choosing politics as a career option. He tries to tie the concept with dedication to God by means of devotion to one's work and service to society. There are two ways to make politics your vocation: you can live for it or off it. It you live for it, you make it your life in an internal sense, either because you enjoy power or because you serve some cause. If you live off it, you strive to make it your permanent source of income. All party struggles are struggles for the patronage of office, as well as struggles for objective goals. Setbacks in participating in offices are felt more severely by parties than is action against their objective goals.

This passage typically explains how some people begin to make politics their career option. However the general good of the people is lost as power and money become their motto. This is true in the United States and in many countries across the world. Power corrupts and Weber was critical of this concept and was quick to point out the vocation aspect to bring some understanding in the minds of people to choose politics as a career move. Religion was a dominant force in the lives of people and Weber tried connect politics as service to people which invariable meant service to God.

The Weimar Republic:              

Article 43:
The term of office of the Reich President lasts seven years. Reelection is permitted. The Reich President can be deposed by plebiscite, which has to be suggested by the Reichstag. This Reichstag decision requires a majority of two thirds of the voted. Such a decision bars the Reich President from continued exercise of his office. A rejection of the deposition is regarded as a reelection and results in the dissolution of the Reichstag. The Reich President can not be persecuted in a penal matter without the approval of Reichstag.

This articles lays out the term of the President and the process of his impeachment. In the United States the Senate and House must vote for two thirds majority to impeach the president. So in this aspect the German and American system is similar. However, I feel that the term of seven years is too long. Most governments across the world have a term of five years. The article also mentions that the president has the power to reject the deposition of the Reichstag regarding his removal. This move invariable dissolves the house and mid term elections have to be held. I think such powers make the president misuse his power. 

Article 109:
All Germans are equal in front of the law. In principle, men and women have the same rights and obligations. Legal privileges or disadvantages based on birth or social standing are to be abolished. Noble titles form part of the name only; noble titles may not be granted any more. Titles may only be granted if they indicate an office or occupation; academic degrees are not affected by this regulation. The state may no more bestow orders and medals. No German may accept titles or orders from a foreign government.
The article explains the basic equality right of every German. However, what baffles me is that in reality this ideal situation seemed far fetched. Inequality was rampant and many Germans did not enjoy the rights specified by the constitution. This situation can be compared to the United States today; we still have racism, although the Civil Rights Act outlawed racial segregation. We as a nation have been successful in curbing this curse, but it still leaves a lot to be desired.

1. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of proportional representation.
Some of the advantages of proportional representation are that it allows more parties to have seats in the parliament. The people can also be assured that their representative’s vote will have an equal value as all other representatives.
Some of the disadvantages are that it may not always provide a party with a clear majority. In this case coalitions are likely to be formed between different parties. Also this can make the functioning of the government difficult  because smaller parties with vested interests within the government can take the government hostage over certain issues. This can also be seen as one of the ways Hitler's party became a voice in the government despite garnering only a few seats.

2. What were the leading causes of the decline of the Weimar Republic.
There were number of events leading to the decline of the Weimar Republic. Notably among them was the inflation after the war, followed by the shocks of the Great Depression of the United States. Germany's economy was closely tied to the United States' economy and so it was natural for its economy to be affected by the fall in the American economy. This is similar to the crash of the American economy in 2004 following the housing and mortgage crisis. This fall had repercussions across Europe, because the European Union’s economic health is closely tied with America.

3. What is hyperinflation?
Hyperinflation is a condition when we have a surplus of paper money in the market. This can occur when a nation experiences very high and uncontrolled inflation where the Federal Government prints money to meet the needs of the country, rather than collecting raising money by raising taxes. Too much money circulating in the market leads to a devaluation of the currency resulting in rising prices and a battered economy.

4. How would you judge the Weimar constitution as compared to the American constitution?
The Weimar constitution and the American constitution had a lot of similarities. However, under the Weimar constitution the President enjoys extensive powers unlike the American president. Too much power lay in the hands of one person and therefore it defeated the purpose of a democracy where people's voice spoke and government was accountable to the people.

The Junius Pamplet:

Thus proletarian policy is locked in a dilemma when trying to decide on which side it ought to intervene, which side represents progress and democracy in this war. In these circumstances, and from the perspective of international politics as a whole, victory or defeat, in political as well as economic terms, comes down to a hopeless choice between two kinds of beatings for the European working classes. Therefore, it is nothing but fatal madness when the French socialists imagine that the military defeat of Germany will strike a blow at the head of militarism and imperialism and thereby pave the way for peaceful democracy in the world. Imperialism and its servant, militarism, will calculate their profits from every victory and every defeat in this war – except in one case: if the international proletariat intervenes in a revolutionary way and puts an end to such calculations.

The passage explains the dilemma of the working class in it decision to choose between democracy and progress in the war. The writer is saying that in all situations, the working class will end up on the losing side and the rich will end up making the money. However, the solution to the impasse lies in the belief that if all the working class in the world got together and rose against the ruling class, then the tide will turn in its favor. I choose this passage because I feel it is relevant in today's capitalist society, where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. The middle class as some scholars predict will disappear some day. The need of the hour is the unification of the working class, which today is the middle class to rise up to the challenge of the politics of rich . However, I feel that it is not a realistic scenario, but if that were to happen then the world would be a better place to live in.

Why does Luxemburg believe the wars of 1871 affect the wars in 1914?
Luxemburg believes that the war of 1870 paved the way for Europe to be split into two major factions which led to a arms race resulting in the present war.

How does Luxemburg judge the claims made about "Russian despotism" supported by the SPD

When the Reichstag issued a statement making their position clear on Russian Deportism during the war, Luxemburg was against it. She goes on to describe the spoils of war and the ramifications of it.  Luxemburg also tries to explain the propaganda that the Reichstag is trying to propagate in the mind of people to make their case. Her next words serve to elucidate her stand, “But in normal human beings this systematic murder is possible only when a state of intoxication has been previously created."

What is the relationship between nationalism and capitalism?Nationalims is the love for you country and the desire to fight for its freedom.  Capitalism is a society ruled by the profit motive. The wealthy hold disproportionate power within capitalism and use it to preserve their interests, especially the ability to make more money.

Why does Luxemburg believe that the war supports the business interests of steel and the banks?

Luxemburg believed that the war would support a capitalist society where the banking and steel industry would manipulate the market.